[Note]\Defense\ is a series of dialogues centered around new books in the humanities, inviting young scholars to write reviews for new historical and literary research works in both Chinese and English academia, with responses from the original authors, aiming to promote the exchange and dissemination of historical and literary research results.

In this issue, we invite Professor Yang Bin from the Department of Chinese and History at City University of Hong Kong, along with two young scholars, to discuss his new book \The Forgotten Discovery: Maldives in Chinese History\.Discovered src=\https://imgpai.thepaper.cn/newpai/image/1748787821000_Jn1JaR_1748788163624.jpg?x-oss-process=image/resize,w_1024\/>

\Forgotten Discoveries: The Maldives in Chinese History\ (Discovered src=\https://imgpai.thepaper.cn/newpai/image/1748788216000_RZNyWt_1748788228728.jpg?x-oss-process=image/resize,w_1024\>

Figure 1 Selden Map/Ming Dynasty East and West Ocean Navigation Map, 17th century, Bodleian Library (https://seldenmap.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/)

However, as the author states, if we take into account the maritime experiences of Chinese travelers in the Indian Ocean during the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, what the Selden Map shows is not the vastness of the activities of Chinese navigators at the time, but rather a significant contraction. On this map, the farthest west reaches only the Indochina Peninsula, with the Indian Ocean almost entirely absent. After Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas, the Indian Ocean gradually faded from the Chinese perspective. Therefore, this book, through a long-term historical study of the three dynasties of Song, Yuan, and Ming, reveals the narrowing of the maritime horizon of the Ming Empire, providing a unique perspective for researchers in the history of the sea.

This book is divided into four parts, totaling 17 chapters. The first part, \Stage,\ introduces the trade, navigation, and exchanges between China and the Indian Ocean region around the 14th century. After the introduction in Chapter One, Chapter Two, \From Zaitun,\ based on the records of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta, shows Quanzhou (Zaitun Port) as an important window for China's foreign trade, attracting merchants and travelers from all over the world. The arrival of these foreigners \encouraged, guided, and supported\ Chinese ships to sail to the Indian Ocean since the 12th century. Chapter Three, \Sailing to the Indian Ocean,\ discusses the navigation technology, shipbuilding craftsmanship, personnel organization, and crew life of Chinese merchant ships at that time. In addition to citing documentary materials, the author also enriches the content with archaeological discoveries such as the \Nanhai No. 1\ shipwreck. Furthermore, the author mentions that there was a Chinese pagoda in Nagapattinam at the southern end of India, but unfortunately, this tower has not been preserved to this day, leaving only some relics.

The second part \A Destination\ provides a detailed introduction to the historical geography of the Maldives. Chapter 4, \Who Once Landed in the Maldives,\ lists foreign travelers who visited the Maldives in different periods and introduces Chinese and foreign literature related to Maldivian studies. Chapter 5, \The Kingdom of Atolls,\ discusses the geographical environment of the Maldives and the evolution of its name in China. Compared to the number of islands in the Maldives, Chinese people seem to pay more attention to the geographical characteristics of these islands. Wang Dayuan once referred to the Maldives as \Beiliu,\ and later Chinese scholars followed this naming method, using \liu\ to represent various regions of the Maldives. According to the author's research, \liu\ refers to islands surrounded by tides, \Beiliu\ refers to the dangerous waters in the northern Maldives with strong undercurrents, and \Nanliu\ refers to the southern Maldives with abundant rainfall and calm tides. In addition, some Chinese scholars applied China's geographical knowledge system to the Indian Ocean region, calling the tides of the Maldives \weak water,\ which means a river that is difficult to cross. The author believes that, despite some errors, Chinese literature generally provides a lot of accurate information about the geographical characteristics of the Maldives.

Chapter 6 \Monsoons and Currents\ discusses the natural environment closely related to navigation. It mentions that the Sultan Ibrahim II of the Maldives was unfortunately killed by pirates in the port due to the lack of wind on the sea surface, which prevented him from sailing. Chapter 7 \Between the Son of Heaven and the Sultan\ introduces the diplomatic relations between the Ming Dynasty government and the Sultan of the Maldives. During Zheng He's fourth voyage to the Western Seas, the Ming fleet visited the Maldives, and the local Sultan sent envoys to pay tribute in 1416, 1421, and 1423. Archaeological discoveries in the Maldives have also unearthed porcelain fragments from the Ming and Yuan dynasties of China, proving the tribute and trade exchanges between the two countries at that time. However, during Zheng He's last voyage, the Sultan of the Maldives did not send envoys to pay tribute, and the author believes this may be related to the turbulent internal political situation in the Maldives at that time. After Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas, the Ming fleet no longer sailed to the Indian Ocean, and the connection between the Maldives and China was also interrupted.

The third part \Cargo\ focuses on the specialties and commodities of the Maldives. Chapter 8, \The Trees of the Maldives,\ primarily introduces the local coconut trees, whose fruits can be both consumed and used for medicinal purposes. Chapter 9, \Ships Without Nails,\ explores the unique shipbuilding techniques of the Maldives. The locals utilize coconut trees and coconut shell-made ropes to construct ships without a single nail. The author also mentions the Belitung ship, a 9th-century merchant vessel found in Indonesia, which, like Maldivian ships, did not use nails but instead employed coconut shell ropes to connect the ship's body. Chapter 10, \Cowrie Shells,\ analyzes how cowrie shells from the Maldives and the Indian Ocean region entered ancient China, becoming a circulating currency or a symbol of wealth. Although historians such as Sima Qian believed that cowrie shells used as currency during the Shang and Zhou dynasties originated from Southeast Asia, the author, after examination, found that these cowrie shells were more likely from the Indian Ocean and were introduced to northern China through Central Asia. Even after the Central Plains dynasties switched to other currencies, cowrie shells continued to play a significant role in China's tributary system.

Chapter 11 \Dried Fish, Grains, and Handkerchiefs\ introduces the daily life and livelihood of the Maldives, including fishing, agriculture, and aquaculture. Although some Chinese documents record that the Maldives lack grains and food, many foreign documents show that the local products are abundant, not only with fruits and plantations, but also with the breeding of cattle, sheep, chickens, and ducks. In addition, the locals are also known for producing exquisite handkerchiefs. Chapter 12 \Dragon’s Spittle\ discusses the specialty of the Maldives and the Indian Ocean region, ambergris. China has a tradition of using spices since ancient times, and ambergris became popular during the Song Dynasty. However, after Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas, the Ming Dynasty government suspended ocean-going voyages and tightened overseas trade, leading to the cessation of ambergris imports to China from the mid-15th century. This once troubled the Jiajing Emperor, who was obsessed with alchemy and seeking immortality, as his alchemical \golden elixir\ required ambergris. Portuguese merchants seized this opportunity and, in exchange for providing ambergris, \borrowed\ Macau Island from the Ming government, ostensibly for anchoring, but in reality, it marked the beginning of colonization. Chapter 13 \Laka Wood and Frankincense\ introduces two other spices. Although the Maldives also produces laka wood and frankincense, they are not the main sources. After the direct contact between China and the Indian Ocean region was interrupted, ambergris almost disappeared in China, while laka wood and frankincense were mostly obtained from Southeast Asia.

Part IV \Reminiscences\ explores how the Maldives gradually faded from China's view. Chapter 14, \A Ruined Buddhist Past,\ introduces the Buddhist history of the Maldives before Islamization. By the 1980s, academia confirmed through historical documents and archaeological findings that the Maldives had a prosperous Buddhist society. However, when Wang Dayuan and Ibn Battuta visited in the 14th century, the Maldives was already a vibrant Islamic nation. Chapter 15, \Port Marriage,\ focuses on the women of the Maldives. Despite being Islamic, the Maldives still had a tradition of queens in the 14th century, which caught the attention of Western travelers. Interestingly, Chinese historical records did not mention the existence of queens, which the author speculates might be because Chinese travelers did not encounter a reigning queen during their visits, or due to the influence of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism, they selectively ignored this \non-orthodox\ custom. Additionally, the author mentions the common \contract marriages\ in Asian coastal ports at the time. Foreign travelers could establish temporary marital relationships with local women in ports. For example, during Ibn Battuta's 18 months in the Maldives, he married four local wives, but only one was willing to accompany him when he left, and she ultimately chose to leave Battuta as well. The author points out that such port marriages were very common along the Asian coast at the time, even existing in Chinese ports. These marriages were usually mutually beneficial: the man could receive care in a foreign port and gain local resources through his wife; the woman could gain material and economic support provided by the man.

Chapter 16 \A True Romance\ focuses on the \Sanbao Eunuch's Western Ocean Record Popular Romance\ during the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty. This novel, adapted from the historical events of Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas, is one of the few texts from the Ming and Qing dynasties that mention the Maldives and the Indian Ocean world. Although the book is filled with exaggerations and fictions, it still provides valuable historical information for studying Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas, the Indian Ocean, and the Maldives. Chapter 17 \An Echo: The 'China Bird'\ tells the story that after Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas, although the Chinese Empire had no direct contact with the Maldives, China's influence still existed there. Around 1605, a giant bird appeared in the Maldives, and some speculated that it came from the distant China. Although this claim is baseless, it reflects that the locals still had an impression of China. At the same time, due to almost cutting off contact with the Indian Ocean world, the Ming and Qing governments and scholars gradually forgot about the Maldives. Although a very small number of Qing people had visited the Indian Ocean, the Maldives did not attract their attention. For example, Xie Qinggao, who had worked on European merchant ships, mentioned the Indian Ocean when dictating the \Hai Lu\ to Yang Bingnan, but did not mention the Maldives at all.

In general, this book, through a wealth of multilingual literature and archaeological materials, uses the Maldives as a starting point to comprehensively showcase the historical interactions and connections between the Chinese Empire and the Indian Ocean region. Starting with the rise of the Maritime Silk Road during the Song Dynasty, many Chinese merchants and travelers went to the Indian Ocean region, including individuals like Wang Dayuan who visited the Maldives and left behind valuable documentary records. By the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He's voyages led to the Maldivian king sending envoys to pay tribute, which further expanded China's influence in the Indian Ocean region. However, after Zheng He, the scope of the Chinese Empire's maritime activities gradually shrank from the Indian Ocean to the Southeast Asian region. Although the Maldivians still retained their impression of China, Chinese literati during the Ming and Qing Dynasties gradually forgot about the Maldives, rarely mentioning it in maps and documents. In this way, the Maldives gradually became \forgotten\ by the Chinese Empire.

Finally, based on the aforementioned analysis, the author has two questions they wish to discuss with the author of the book. The first is related to the issue of academic history. One of the main contributions of this book is to emphasize the historical relationship between China and the Indian Ocean region, which has long been overlooked by academia. The author would like to further inquire about what new insights can be brought to the study of China's maritime history and even global maritime history through the study of the historical interactions between the Indian Ocean region and China?

The second question pertains to China's influence in the Indian Ocean region. This book reveals the significant position of the Maldives and the Indian Ocean region in Chinese history by analyzing commodities such as ambergris and cowrie shells. I am curious whether China also played a similar role in the history of the Indian Ocean. For instance, during the Song and Yuan dynasties and during Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas, did goods or travelers from China also have a significant impact on the historical development of the Indian Ocean region?